Buddhism and psychology

Buddhism and the psyche: a holistic perspective

In the Buddhist view, the psyche is seen as malleable, with the aim of reducing mental suffering, developing more serenity and achieving a harmonious balance.
- It is important to note here that the term mental health is not used as it is in the Western context. Mental illnesses that can be life-threatening for themselves and others are not covered by this categorisation.

1. the Buddhist view of the psyche

The psyche, as a dynamic interaction of five components:

• the mould - than the physical body
• the sensation - pleasant, unpleasant or unclassifiable feelings
• perception - recognising and interpreting experiences
• the mental formations - thoughts, intentions, conditioning
• the consciousness - which perceives itself and experiences

2. the causes of psychological suffering

Suffering (Dukkha) is essentially characterised by three main factors:

• The greed - Holding on to things, expectations or people
• The ignorance - the misunderstanding of reality
• The hate - the rejection, anger and rage

(- Note - Ignorance is actually also an upstream component of greed and hatred. Ignorance is understood here as the lack of a clear view)

3. the claim of holistic health

There is a path with parallel paths (corresponding to the 5 components mentioned above)

Care for physical health:

• Nutrition: A balanced and healthy diet strengthens the body and promotes mental abilities.
• Physical exercise: Regular exercise and physical care maintain mental flexibility.
• Non-harmful behaviours: Abusive use of drugs, alcohol and other intoxicating substances clouds the ability to achieve clear vision.

Development of emotional health:

• Equanimity: Healthy emotional attitude in everyday consciousness, experiencing both positive and negative emotions with equanimity. Emotions are not ignored, but observed and categorised with wisdom and without over-identification.
• Forgiveness and healing: Holding on to grudges and negative feelings leads to emotional suffering. Letting go and forgiving the past as part of a healing process.

(- Note - important - healing in the Buddhist sense does not include the healing of traumatic experiences or deep psychological illnesses. These were not recognised as such at the time of the emergence of Buddhism and were therefore not part of the teachings)

Exercises for the health of the mind:

• Mindfulness: A mindful mind leads to greater clarity and inner peace. Emotions such as anger, greed and jealousy are relativised and concentration on the essentials is strengthened.
• Letting go of attachment: Attachment to things, ideas or people as one of the main causes of suffering, as this behaviour ignores the constant change and impermanence of things.

Achieving health through ethical behaviour:

• The Five Silas: The ethical guidelines (non-killing, non-stealing, no sexual, harmful behaviour, no false speech, no intoxicating substances) are the basis for a healthy and harmonious coexistence.
• Taking responsibility for one's own actions: To consciously shape behaviour by understanding the consequences of actions. This applies to private coexistence, in professional practice and in general dealings with nature and other living beings.

(- Note - The law of karma often used for this, according to which every action has consequences, is interpreted differently depending on the Buddhist tradition. In the Buddhist tradition of rebirth (later adopted from the Hindu tradition), the consequences refer to subsequent rebirths. In the original sources of the Buddha's discourses, the possibility of the existence of rebirth is not addressed, but the vigour and motivation is placed on alleviating suffering in this life. The karmic consequences of ethical behaviour are thus directed towards this world. The attainment of nirvana (a clear view, enlightenment) is therefore also attainable in the present life. (e.g. Zen Buddhism, Dzogchen).

Meditation as a practice for mental health

• Shamatha (calming meditation) - to calm the mind.
• Vipassana (insight meditation) - training in clarity and realisation of one's own psyche.
• Metta (loving-kindness meditation) - to promote self-love and compassion.

( - Note - Mental health in the Buddhist sense is a multi-pathway that includes areas such as ethical behaviour, mindfulness practice and overcoming the 3 poisons of suffering. Meditation practice is a part of the path that cannot fulfil the meaning of holistic health on its own)

Spiritual health and enlightenment

• Realisation of the Dhamma: A healthy state is seen as the realisation of the true nature of reality (the three characteristics of existence: impermanence, sense of suffering, non-self). Practising and maintaining this awareness is an essential part of all Buddhist practices.
• Terms, Enlightenment, nirvana or a clear view of true nature are often used to describe the goal of an accomplished Buddhist practice. Whether this goal is this-worldly, other-worldly, now, future or already existing has not yet been answered uniformly, as each Buddhist tradition has its own ideas depending on its cultural origin and characterisation.

Résumé

The question of whether there is such a thing as a "healthy" practitioner in today's society cannot, of course, be answered here. In the Buddhist sense, healthy is not understood as medically categorisable, but as "healthy" with the help of a multi-path practice that includes physical, mental and spiritual development. Our current westernised medical understanding of health ignores the diversity of the interaction of mental and physical components and therefore cannot do justice to the claim of holistic health.

Integration of psychotherapy and Buddhist spiritual practices in Western cultures

The integration of psychotherapy and Buddhist mind exercises is an increasingly popular approach that has received more and more attention in psychotherapeutic practice in recent years. It combines elements of Buddhist meditation techniques and mindfulness exercises with established psychotherapeutic methods to promote psychological well-being and enhance the effects of treatment.

Aspects of integration:

Mindfulness and meditation

• Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and the Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). These practices help to observe thoughts and emotions without allowing them to overwhelm you. Mindfulness promotes the ability to live in the moment and not get lost in negative thought patterns.

Acceptance and letting go

• Buddhist teachings emphasise letting go of attachments and accepting impermanence. Accepting unpleasant thoughts and feelings instead of fighting against them or avoiding them corresponds to the approach of the Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT).

Compassion and self-compassion

• In Buddhism Compassion is a central concept, both for others and for oneself. Many psychotherapeutic models, especially the Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) and the Dialectical behavioural therapy (DBT)integrate exercises to promote self-compassion in order to help people deal with their own faults and weaknesses in a more loving and less self-critical way.

The middle way: balance between acceptance and change

• Another Buddhist principle is the Middle Way, which avoids extreme positions. In psychotherapeutic practice, this means learning to integrate both acceptance and change into one's life.

Brief overview the therapy approaches

Gestalt therapy
Gestalt therapy is a humanistic psychotherapy developed in the 1940s by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls and Paul Goodman. It focuses on being conscious in the here and now and recognising one's own experiences and feelings. The aim is to recognise unconscious conflicts or blocked emotions.

• Mindfulness and presence: encouraging you to experience thoughts, feelings and physical sensations in the moment.
• Self-awareness and responsibility: recognising responsibility for behaviour and decisions, avoiding blaming external circumstances or other people for suffering.
• Experience and expression: The direct expression of emotions promotes the experience of unconscious content through various techniques such as the "empty chair" method, which involves interacting with an imaginary dialogue partner.

Acceptance and commitment therapy
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is a young form of cognitive behavioural therapy developed by Steven C. Hayes in the 1980s. It focuses on developing acceptance for unpleasant thoughts, feelings and sensations instead of fighting against them or avoiding them. At the same time, ACT encourages people to lead a life that is in harmony with their personal values and long-term goals.

• Acceptance: Learning to accept unpleasant thoughts and feelings without judging or changing them.
• Cognitive defusion: practising distancing yourself from stressful thoughts so that they have less influence on your behaviour.
• Mindfulness: The focus is on the present moment in order to develop more awareness of one's own experiences.
• Commitment to value-based action: Identifying with deep values and aligning actions accordingly, even if this is associated with difficult feelings.

Dialectical behavioural therapy
Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) was developed in the late 1980s by Marsha Linehan and is also a form of cognitive behavioural therapy. It was originally developed for the treatment of emotionally unstable personality disorder (in particular borderline personality disorder), but has also proven effective for other mental illnesses.

• Dialectics: Based on the principle of dialectics, the endeavour to integrate seemingly contradictory truths. Acceptance of existing difficulties while simultaneously striving for change.
• Mindfulness: Practising mindfulness, observing thoughts, feelings and bodily sensations in the moment without reacting immediately.
• Emotion regulation: DBT helps to better understand and control intense and often overwhelming emotions.
• Interpersonal effectiveness: training in building and maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships, resolving conflicts and asserting oneself without falling into extreme behavioural patterns.
• Acceptance and change: Therapy promotes both the acceptance of one's own experiences and the ability to change problematic behaviour.

Excerpts from the "Buddhismus Aktuell" magazine 2019 on this topic:

Me, my feelings and my Buddhist practice
A contribution from Dr Ulrich Küstner , published in the Issue 2019/1 Growing under the heading grow.

As people today, we think psychologically - we know no other way. However, liberation paths such as Buddhist meditation examine basic functions of consciousness, not its content. We want to use meditation to improve our lives: to deal with our emotions, overcome old patterns, treat others with more compassion, "overcome the ego", "let go" of something. However, such a preoccupation with our thoughts and behavioural patterns, with our emotionality and our relationships is not Buddhist meditation in the true sense of the word. And it creates many misunderstandings. As long as we do not know and understand the meditative meta-level, we are doing "psychotherapy on the cushion". It seems that modern attempts to make the Dharma more comprehensible to us through psychological language make it more difficult to access its more far-reaching goals and more subtle content.

The triumph of the therapeutic

Today we live in a world in which the therapeutic has triumphed. The therapeutic is the arena where we invent ourselves as individuals with wants, needs and desires. Therapeutic thinking is also a cultural frame of reference to which our self-perceptions and the ideas we form about others are orientated. This is how the sociologist Eva Illouz describes it in The Salvation of the Modern Soul. According to her, therapeutic thinking adopts a reflexive attitude towards feelings and insists that the rules governing the expression of feelings must be learnt reflexively. It creates new psychological ideals of self-fulfilment. Those who fall short of them are defined as ill. Anyone who is not a creative, fully self-actualising person is disturbed, neurotic. And suddenly most people are! This is the basis for the enormous public appreciation of psychology and therapy in the second half of the 20th century.
In the meantime, healing and well-being have become even more comprehensive demands: Happiness and health, fitness, slimness, well-being and wellness have become a moral demand, an ideology: if you are not healthy and happy, you are a bad person and it is your own fault.
The therapeutic culture, whose primary mission is healing, creates a narrative structure in which the self is defined by its suffering and victimhood. It understands life events as signs of missed or thwarted opportunities for self-development. The goal of this story determines both the selection of events with which it is told and the way in which these events are linked as components of the narrative.
Everything is seen within the framework of this therapeutic narrative, a story of suffering. Emotions and their reflection take centre stage.

Western Buddhism today operates to a large extent within this framework of self-help and therapeutic discourse and is strongly influenced by its almost imperative demands. The suggestion is that our own interests and goals are aligned with those of Buddhism. This also seems plausible because our practice is often motivated by a sense of lack, a personal flaw or defect. Zen teacher Barry Magid calls this "our secret practice", which is guided by "healing fantasies".

How does therapeutic thinking come into Buddhism?

In the early modern period, there were signs of fatigue and decline in many traditional Buddhist countries. Monasteries in Asia grew larger and larger, but the number of intensive meditators declined. The revival of Buddhist practice in the 19th century often came from those Asian teachers who had already had contact with the West. What we see today as "Buddhism" emerged from the encounters of local forms with the West through colonialism. Even the forms and teachers that we perceive as "traditional" are already children of these encounters with the Enlightenment, science, Protestantism, Romanticism, psychotherapy and therapeutic thinking. Well-known Asian teachers of the 20th century, who seemingly brought us the original Buddhism, were already teaching such hybrids, for example Daisetz Suzuki, Chögyam Trungpa, Thich Nhat Hanh, and many Vipassana teachers.

Daniel Goleman relates the following anecdote: In 1975, Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche invited him to a restaurant in Massachusetts to talk about his plans for the Naropa Institute. At some point in the conversation, he leaned over the table with a conspiratorial expression, looked him in the eye and said emphatically: "Buddhism will come to the West as a psychology."
And that is exactly what happened. An entire generation of Dharma teachers since the middle of the 20th century has taught Buddhism in the West in psychological terms. In addition to their training as meditation teachers, many of them have also undergone psychotherapeutic training.
Trungpa himself contributed significantly to this development. He described classical Buddhist psychology in terms of Western psychology. For example, he no longer spoke of the kleshas, but of "our neurosis". His famous Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado was instrumental in the development of therapeutic forms of Buddhism. Many of today's well-known Western Dharma teachers taught there at various times. The mindfulness movement, which focuses primarily on the health and social effects of mindfulness, also emerged in this environment of "Dharma as psychology".

There is nothing wrong with that. This is not about therapeutic goals or psychotherapy! A certain stability, a pragmatic self-care is a basic prerequisite for a path. And this often includes psychotherapy. Especially when it comes to feelings of lack and inadequacy. Too many people turn to meditation when they actually need therapy, thereby chronifying their bad attitudes and defence mechanisms. Without a well-functioning, integrated ego (in the therapeutic sense), the step towards the experience of emptiness and non-ego (in the meditative sense) is either not possible at all, dangerous or at least cannot be maintained for long.

We should also not renounce our feelings and human relationships, but only the misunderstanding that they are the primary goal and yardstick of our Buddhist path. If the psychological prerequisites are sufficiently fulfilled, further possibilities open up. To do this, however, we need to understand the different nature of the task.

The disappearance of liberation goals

The therapeutic model is only suitable as a framework for Buddhist practice to a limited extent. It makes a large part of the actual Dharma disappear, as it were, because there is no suitable language for it in this model. If we see psychological, emotional or social suffering as something to be overcome through Buddhist practice, we not only lose sight of its wider aims, but also fail to properly categorise its methods.
The localisation of modern Buddhism in the "immanent framework" (Charles Taylor; see also the article by Bhikkhu Bodhi in BUDDHISM aktuell 4/18) suggests that the Buddha teaching of "suffering and the end of suffering" describes more or less the same goal as overcoming everyday suffering through therapy. Anything that goes beyond this is seen as "transcendent", "religious", "traditional" and therefore inaccessible or irrelevant to modern man. But this is where what is specific and valuable about Buddhism actually begins.

Intense emotionality is not liberation

The Buddha speaks of three types of suffering. The suffering within our therapeutic narrative, our story of suffering, belongs to the first, coarsest form. A second, deeper layer is the suffering of change and impermanence. Up to this point, we do not necessarily need the specific views and methods of the Buddhist Dharma. These obvious themes are accessible to our Western psychotherapy and philosophy and are dealt with in them in many ways.
The specific message and strength of the Dharma relates to the third type of suffering, dukkha, the fundamentally unsatisfactory, the never truly satisfying and permanently happy basic characteristic of worldly life and our everyday consciousness. Dukkha is a deeply rooted process in our consciousness, in addition to what happens to us from the external world. Its central cause is attachment to an ego experience and our lack of realisation of how things really are.

We often think that this 'attachment' that the Dharma talks about is something that we can understand and influence like an emotion. Something like: "I have to dissolve my attachment to my ex-partner." However, our normal everyday consciousness (Buddhist: samsara) is constituted and defined precisely by this clinging mechanism. The "clinging" of Buddhist psychology describes a fundamental function of consciousness that is invisible to us, not just its experienced effects, which we can understand and influence psychologically. Accordingly, we do not suffer in the sense of dukkha because our everyday consciousness experiences emotions and difficulties, but because we are in everyday consciousness! Working on the difficulties and emotions leads to a reduction in suffering, but not beyond the level at which the suffering arises again and again.

Emotions are very important to people today. The philosopher Tristan Garcia calls it "the modern obsession with the intense life". We are constantly asking ourselves: Am I feeling enough, am I living intensely enough? Emotions also create the feeling of a (suffering) subject at the centre of our world. Just as our thoughts always say: "Think me, I am important", our feelings say: "I am important for your life! Me, your anger, your fear, your dislikes, your love, your frustration - we are telling you something important!"
This compulsive self-control of thoughts and feelings is a cause of our lack of freedom. A large part of our emotionality, which we see as "normal", even "healthy" and which is so important to us, is seen in Buddhist psychology as kleshas, as a cause of suffering.

There is a lot of confusion here. The fantasy of "tantra" is popular: the idea that we could simultaneously lead an intense and emotional life and free ourselves from the kleshas, the imprisoning passions, in a Buddhist-meditative way - and then live even more passionately! This is not Vajrayana, but a typical romantic topos. It is based on a pre-trans confusion, as Ken Wilber has called it. Using strong emotions as part of the path is an exercise for the very advanced. For this, a balanced human emotionality and a good ego-functionality with ethical discipline and self-control must first be achieved as the basis for the Buddhist path.
"The full life" is not a question that has preoccupied the Buddhists of the last 2,500 years in any way. They started from the opposite basic assumption: that their confused, greedy and aggressive emotionality was holding them captive, leading them astray and into suffering.

The Buddha's awakening also refers to another dimension, which is only apparently "transcendent". It is about a different way of perceiving and experiencing. You can place this in a religious, transcendental narrative - but you don't have to!

Change of narrative

Tibetan teachers simply say that we need to become a chödpa, a Dharma person. Someone who places themselves and their life in a different perspective, in a different context. Instead of a therapeutic narrative, a yogi narrative or a bodhisattva narrative. That sounds strange and we are unfamiliar with many of the terms used.
It starts with "renunciation". This term regularly generates loud protests among Western practitioners. Renunciation is highly unfashionable. We always want everything (and all at once). But it is actually a very banal clarification of goals, in the awareness of the limitations of our lifetime and our resources. In this sense, renunciation means a necessary turning away from our constant distractions and busyness, a disillusionment with our usual way of seeing ourselves as the centre of the world. It is not about maintaining our usual desires and needs and merely putting Buddhism in front of their cart!

In this context, the so-called "truth" of suffering is also a motivational structure. Recognising what is unsatisfactory about our usual thinking serves to free us from the discursive preoccupation with everyday thoughts in order to free up time and energy. Suffering is also a message about how much better the awakened state of mind would be.
We allow another possibility of experience, the necessary quality of our experience, to take on an increasingly greater value for us. That we develop devotion to this quality, cultivate it, is what is meant by "refuge". And that it becomes important to us that others can also have this experience is compassion and bodhicitta, the spirit of awakening. Although this is outside the framework in which we usually operate in everyday life and in psychological thinking, it is ultimately neither transcendent nor religious. Perhaps it is mysticism - but that is also such a difficult word.

Ulrich Küstner, Dr. med., specialist in pneumology and psychotherapist for behavioural therapy. Studied Buddhism since 1973, disciple of Akong Rinpoche since 1978, therapist and trainer in Tara Rokpa therapy. Founding member of the "Buddhism and Psychotherapy" working group of the Buddhist Academy and co-organiser of the annual conferences since 2002.

Books on the topic

Buddhist psychology: basics and practice
In this book, Tilmann Borghardt and Wolfgang Erhardt offer a comprehensive introduction to the basics and applications of Buddhist psychology. The book contains numerous case studies and exercises for beginners and advanced practitioners. It combines traditional Buddhist practices such as awareness training, meditation and compassion exercises with psychotherapeutic methods from behavioural therapy, psychosynthesis, focusing and Gestalt therapy.

The healing power of Buddhist psychology
In this book, Thich Nhat Hanh invites you to get to know your own mind and understand how it works. He shows how to use the mind to experience more peace, joy and happiness in the here and now. The work is divided into 50 verses that convey the workings of the human mind step by step and encourage the reader to achieve greater mental clarity.

Paths to balance - higher consciousness, self-healing and meditation
In this book, Tarthang Tulku offers a true-to-life guide to self-healing and meditation. He teaches how to cultivate awareness, how to deal creatively with thoughts and emotions and how to balance mental, emotional and physical energies. In simple and direct language, he shows us how to get in touch with our own positive energies and gain inner confidence.

Buddhist psychology
In this book, Herbert V. Günther offers an in-depth analysis of Buddhist psychology and its application in daily life. He examines the philosophical background and practical aspects of this discipline.

Matthias Ennenbach
Dr Ennenbach holds a degree in psychology, a doctorate in medicine and is a licensed psychotherapist. He has developed the concepts of Mindful Self-Control (ASST®) and Buddhist Psychotherapy (BPT®). His works include
Buddhist psychotherapy: A guide to healing change
Buddhist psychotherapy in application

Psychotherapy and Buddhist mind training: Helpful insights for practical work
This specialist article in the Deutsches Ärzteblatt examines the integration of psychotherapy and Buddhist mental exercises. It is aimed at experienced psychotherapists and sheds light on the special perception of different states of consciousness.

Question: Possibilities of transferring monastic practices to the laity Everyday life

Practice: monks versus lay people / Goals of the practice

• Monks and nuns dedicate their lives entirely to the practice of Buddhism. The aim is also to preserve and continue the tradition of the monastery. A lifestyle that structures the day with meditation, study of Buddhist scriptures and rituals.
• Laymen: Practice within daily life, alongside worldly obligations, family, work. The practice is integrated into everyday life.

Obligations and rules

• Monks and nuns follow the rules of the Vinaya, a code that governs monastic life. This includes renouncing worldly pleasures, living in community (Sangha) and concentrating on meditation and study. (e.g. up to 227 rules in Theravada Buddhist countries and complete external support from the population)
• Lay people are not obliged to follow the same code, but adhere to the Five Silas (ethical guidelines): No killing | No stealing | No sexual misconduct | No false speech (lies, slander, etc.) | No intoxicating substances (alcohol, drugs).

Meditation

• Meditation is a central part of the practice for nuns and monks. Depending on the tradition and lineage, this includes Vipassana, Samatha, Metta and Vajrayana practices.
• Laymen practise meditation in shorter sessions and as part of a daily routine. Meditation is used as a means to achieve mental clarity, inner peace and as a tool for overcoming stress and suffering in everyday life.

Study and teaching

• Nuns and monks concentrate on studying the Buddhist scriptures (e.g. the Pali canon, sutras and commentaries). Depending on the tradition, they are responsible for teaching doctrinal content and guiding lay people in practice.
• Lay people study the Buddha's teachings on a more fundamental level. Their practice can focus more specifically on the realisation of the ethical and meditative principles in everyday life.

Social role

• Nuns and monks live mainly in isolation in monasteries, withdrawing from secular society. They can take on a role as spiritual teachers and counsellors.
• Laymen have an active role in society and can apply Buddhist principles in their family and professional lives. They contribute to the support of the monks and the Buddhist community.

Rituals and festivals

• Nuns and monks regularly perform rituals and ceremonies, both for the community and for themselves. These can include meditation, reciting sutras, giving sermons and other spiritual practices.
• Lay people take part in religious rituals, usually as part of the community, not as leading practitioners.

Similarities in practice:

• Nuns, monks and lay people strive to overcome greed, hatred and delusion.
• They practise ethical behaviour, meditation and wisdom (the "three practice points" of Buddhism).
• They are part of a Sangha (community), which is an important part of Buddhist life.

Résumé:

• The transferability of monastic structures and rituals, is strictly bound to the lineage affiliation and tradition of a monastery. The lineage holders and founders are committed to their tradition and their historical chains of ancestors and reincarnation. These are regarded as binding with their interpretation of Buddhist texts and integrated cultural interpretation.
  
• Power political influences In addition, the rise of feudalistic forms of rule in recent centuries has led to the dogmatic transfer of Buddhist content and rituals. Enmities between different lineages and the introduction as a state religion with clerical forms of rule led to further alienation.
  
• The sources of the Buddha's original statements rediscovering the Buddhist tradition in these constructs means working through the cultural and constitutional superstructures. Adopting recitations and rituals from Eastern cultures and their language and interpretations without knowing the historical sources is not the intention of an original Buddhist practice.
  
• Just as every country has developed its own form of Buddhist practice, it is also necessary for Western society to develop its own practice. Any dogmatic interpretation should be avoided. The integration of the humanities is just as sensible as taking into account and incorporating current ecological and economic requirements.
  
• Large parts of Buddhist ethics are already established in society, scientific findings on the different forms of being coincide with observations of the Buddhist theory of emptiness. The practice of mindfulness is the basis of many therapeutic approaches, and the practice of metta is also present in other religious systems and charitable organisations.
  
• An essential specific feature of Buddhist philosophy and practice remains
  - the right to act responsibly towards oneself, one's fellow human beings and other living beings (metta).
  - training your own mind and developing wisdom (Vipassana).
  - striving for harmonious living conditions in the Sangha, fellow human beings and living beings (Shamatha).
  - a practice that is not tied to monasteries or lineages, but is orientated towards social developments and solutions to problems in this world.
  - Rituals that support a practice without becoming an empty routine.
  - and the hope that the human potential of every person will develop for the benefit of all living beings.
  
  Kind regards,
  Stefan Lachmann